Tupolev Tu-154
The Tupolev Tu-154 (Russian: Ту-154;
NATO reporting name: Careless) is a three-engine medium-range
narrow-body airliner designed in the mid-1960s and manufactured by
Tupolev. A workhorse of Soviet and (subsequently) Russian airlines
for several decades, it carried half of all passengers flown by
Aeroflot and its subsidiaries (137.5 million/year or 243.8 billion
passenger km in 1990), remaining the standard domestic-route
airliner of Russia and former Soviet states until the mid-2000s. It
was exported to 17 non-Russian airlines and used as head-of-state
transport by the air forces of several countries.
With a cruising speed of 975 kilometres per hour
(606 mph), the Tu-154 is one of the fastest civilian aircraft in
use and has a range of 5,280 kilometres (3,280 mi). Capable of
operating from unpaved and gravel airfields with only basic
facilities, it was widely used in the extreme Arctic conditions of
Russia's northern/eastern regions where other airliners were unable
to operate. Originally designed for a 45,000 hr service life
(18,000 cycles) but capable of 80,000 hrs with upgrades, it is
expected to continue in service until 2016, although noise
regulations have restricted flights to western Europe and other
regions.
In January 2010, Russian flag carrier Aeroflot
announced the retirement of its Tu-154 fleet after 40 years, with
the last scheduled flight being Aeroflot Flight 736 from
Ekaterinburg to Moscow on 31 December 2009. The last scheduled
public passenger flight took place in May 2015 when Belavia as the
last airline worldwide retired their remaining Tu-154s from
scheduled services. Since then, the type is only used for military
and charter operations.
Since 1968 there have been 39 fatal incidents
involving the Tu-154, most of which were caused either by factors
unrelated to the aircraft, or by its extensive use in demanding
conditions.
The Tu-154 was developed to meet Aeroflot's
requirement to replace the jet-powered Tu-104, the Antonov An-10
'Ukraine' and the Ilyushin Il-18 turboprops. The requirements
called for either a payload capacity of 16–18 tonnes
(35,000–40,000 lb) with a range of 2,850–4,000
kilometres (1,770–2,490 mi) while cruising at 900 km/h (560
mph), or a payload of 5.8 tonnes (13,000 lb) with a range of
5,800–7,000 kilometres (3,600–4,300 mi) while cruising
at 850 km/h (530 mph). A take-off distance of 2,600 metres (8,500
ft) at maximum take-off weight was also stipulated as a
requirement. Conceptually similar to the British Hawker Siddeley
Trident, which first flew in 1962, and the American Boeing 727,
which first flew in 1963, the medium-range Tu-154 was marketed by
Tupolev at the same time as Ilyushin was marketing the long-range
Ilyushin Il-62. The Soviet Ministry of Aircraft Industry chose the
Tu-154 as it incorporated the latest in Soviet aircraft design and
best met Aeroflot's anticipated requirements for the 1970s and
1980s.
The first project chief was Sergey Yeger; in 1964, Dmitryi S.
Markov assumed that position. In 1975, the project lead role was
turned over to Aleksandr S. Shengardt.
The Tu-154 first flew on 4 October 1968. The
first deliveries to Aeroflot were in 1970 with freight (mail)
services beginning in May 1971 and passenger services in February
1972. There was still limited production of the 154M model as of
January 2009, despite previous announcements of the end of
production in 2006. The last serial Tu-154 was delivered to the
Russian Defense Ministry on 19 February 2013. 1025 Tu-154s have
been built, 214 of which are still in service as of 14 December
2009. In January 2013 the Aviakor factory announced that it was
about to deliver a new Tu-154M to the Russian Ministry of Defense
equipped with upgraded avionics, a VIP interior and a
communications suite. The factory has 4 unfinished hulls in its
inventory which can be completed if new orders are received.
The Tu-154 is powered by three rear-mounted
low-bypass turbofan engines arranged similarly to those of the
Boeing 727, but it is slightly larger than its American
counterpart. Both the 727 and the Tu-154 use an S-duct for the
middle (Number 2) engine. The original model was equipped with
Kuznetsov NK-8-2 engines, which were replaced with Soloviev
D-30KU-154 in the Tu-154M. All Tu-154 aircraft models have a
relatively high thrust-to-weight-ratio which gave excellent
performance, at the expense of poorer fuel efficiency. This became
an important factor in later decades as fuel costs grew.[citation
needed]
The flight deck is fitted with conventional dual yoke control
columns. Flight control surfaces are hydraulically operated.
The cabin of the Tu-154, although of the same
six-abreast seating layout, gives the impression of an oval
interior, with a lower ceiling than is common on Boeing and Airbus
airliners. The passenger cabin accommodates 128 passengers in a
two-class layout and 164 passengers in single-class layout, and up
to 180 passengers in high-density layout. The layout can be
modified to what is called a winter version where some seats are
taken out and a wardrobe is installed for passenger coats. The
passenger doors are smaller than on its Boeing and Airbus
counterparts. Luggage space in the overhead compartments is very
limited.
Like the Tupolev Tu-134, the Tu-154 has a wing
swept back at 35° at the quarter-chord line. The British Hawker
Siddeley Trident has the same sweepback angle, while the Boeing 727
has a slightly smaller sweepback angle of 32°. The wing also has
anhedral (downward sweep) which is a distinguishing feature of
Russian low-wing airliners designed during this era. Most Western
low-wing airliners such as the contemporary Boeing 727 have
dihedral (upward sweep). The anhedral means that Russian airliners
have poor lateral stability compared to their Western counterparts,
but also have weaker dutch roll tendencies.
Considerably heavier than its predecessor
Soviet-built airliner the Ilyushin Il-18, the Tu-154 was equipped
with an oversized landing gear to reduce ground load, enabling it
to operate from the same runways. The aircraft has two six-wheel
main bogies fitted with large low-pressure tires that retract into
pods extending from the trailing edges of the wings (a common
Tupolev feature), plus a two-wheel nose gear unit. Soft oleo struts
(shock absorbers) provide a much smoother ride on bumpy airfields
than most airliners, which only very rarely operate on such poor
surfaces.
The original requirement was to have a
three-person flight crew – captain, first officer and flight
engineer – as opposed to 4/5-person crew on other Soviet
airliners. It became evident that a fourth crew member, a
navigator, was still needed, and a seat was added on production
aircraft, although his workstation was compromised due to the
limitations of the original design. Navigators are no longer
trained and this profession will become obsolete with the
retirement of older Soviet-era planes.
The latest variant (Tu-154M-100, introduced
1998) includes an NVU-B3 Doppler navigation system, a triple
autopilot, which provides an automatic ILS approach according to
ICAO category II weather minima, an autothrottle, a Doppler drift
and speed measure system (DISS), "Kurs-MP" radio navigation suite
and others.[citation needed] A stability and control augmentation
system improves handling characteristics during manual flight.
Modern upgrades normally include a TCAS, GPS and other modern
systems, mostly American or EU-made.
Early versions of the Tu-154 cannot be modified
to meet the current Stage III noise regulations and are banned from
flying where those regulations are in force, such as European
Union.
Many variants of this airliner have been built. Like its western
counterpart, the 727, many of the Tu-154s in service have been
hush-kitted, and some converted to freighters.
Tu-154
Tu-154 production started in 1970, while first passenger flight was
performed at 9 February 1972. Powered by Kuznetsov NK-8-2
turbofans, it carried 164 passengers. About 42 were built.
Tu-154A
The first upgraded version of the original Tu-154, the A model, in
production since 1974, added center-section fuel tanks and more
emergency exits, while engines were upgraded to higher-thrust
Kuznetsov NK-8-2U. Other upgrades include automatic flaps/slats and
stabilizer controls and modified avionics. Max. take-off weight
– 94,000 kg (207,235 lb). There were 15 different interior
layouts for the different domestic and international customers of
the airplane, seating between 144 and 152 passengers. The easiest
way to tell the A model from the base model is by looking at the
spike at the junction of the fin and tail; this is a fat bullet on
the A model rather than a slender spike on the base model.
Tu-154B
As the original Tu-154 and Tu-154A suffered wing cracks after a few
years in service, a version with a new, stronger wing, designated
Tu-154B, went into production in 1975. It also had an extra fuel
tank in fuselage, extra emergency exits in the tail, and the
maximum take-off weight increased to 98,000 kg (216,053 lb). Also
important to Aeroflot was that the increased passenger capacity led
to lower operating costs. As long as the airplane had the NK-8-2U
engines the only way to improve the economics of the airplane was
to spread costs across more seats. The autopilot was certified for
ICAO Category II automatic approaches. Most previously built Tu-154
and Tu-154A were also modified into this variant, with the
replacement of the wing. Max. take-off weight increased to 96,000
kg (211,644 lb). 111 were built.
Tu-154B-1
Aeroflot wanted this version for increased revenue on domestic
routes. It carried 160 passengers. This version also had some minor
modifications to fuel system, avionics, air conditioning, landing
gear. 64 were built from 1977 to 1978.
Tu-154B-2
A minor modernization of Tu-154B-1. The airplane was designed to be
converted from the 160 passenger version to a 180 passenger version
by removing the galley. The procedure took about two and a half
hours. Some of the earlier Tu-154B modified to that standard. Max.
take-off weight increased to 98,000 kg (216,053 lb), later to
100,000 kg (220,462 lb). 311 aircraft were built, including VIP
versions, a few of them are still in use.
Tu-154S
The Tu-154S is an all-cargo or freighter version of the Tu-154B,
using a strengthened floor, and adding a forward cargo door on the
port side of the fuselage. The airplane could carry 9 Soviet PAV-3
pallets. Max. payload – 20,000 kg (44,092 lb). There were
plans for 20 aircraft, but only nine aircraft were converted; two
from Tu-154 model and seven from Tu-154B model. Trials were held in
the early 1980s and the aircraft was authorized regular operations
in 1984. By 1997 all had been retired.
Tu-154M
The Tu-154M and Tu-154M Lux are the most highly upgraded versions,
which first flew in 1982 and entered mass production in 1984. It
uses more fuel-efficient Soloviev D-30KU-154 turbofans. Together
with significant aerodynamic refinement, this led to much lower
fuel consumption and therefore longer range, as well as lower
operating costs. The aircraft has new double-slotted (instead of
triple-slotted) flaps, with an extra 36-degree position (in
addition to existing 15, 28 and 45-degree positions on older
versions), which allows reduction of noise on approach. It also has
a relocated auxiliary power unit and numerous other improvements.
Maximum takeoff weight increased first to 100,000 kg (220,462 lb),
then to 102,000 kg (224,872 lb). Some aircraft are certified to
104,000 kg (229,281 lb). About 320 were manufactured. Mass
production ended in 2006, though limited manufacturing continued as
of January 2009.(photo link) No new airframes have been built since
the early 1990s, and production since then involved assembling
aircraft from components on hand. Chinese Tu-154MD electronic
intelligence aircraft carries a large-size synthetic aperture radar
(SAR) under its mainframe.
Tu-154M-LK-1
Cosmonaut Trainer. This was a Salon VIP aircraft modified to train
cosmonauts to fly the Buran reusable spacecraft, the Soviet
equivalent of the US Space Shuttle. The Tu-154 was used because the
Buran required a steep descent, and the Tu-154 was capable of
replicating that. The cabin featured trainee workstations, one of
which was the same as the Buran's flightdeck. The forward baggage
compartment was converted into a camera bay, because the aircraft
was also used to train cosmonauts in observation and photographic
techniques.
Tu-154M-ON Monitoring Aircraft
Germany modified one of the Tu-154s it had on hand from the former
East German Air Force into an observation airplane. This airplane
was involved with the Open Skies inspection flights. It was
converted at the Elbe Aircraft Plant (Elbe Flugzeugwerke) in
Dresden, and flew in 1996. After two dozen monitoring missions, it
was lost in a mid-air collision in 1997.
The Russians also converted a Tu-154M to serve
as an Open Skies Monitoring aircraft. They used the Tu-154M-LK-1,
and converted it to a Tu-154M-ON. When the aircraft is not flying
over North America, it is used to ferry cosmonauts around. China is
also believed to have converted one Tu-154 to an electronic
countermeasures aircraft.
Tu-154M-100
Design of this variant started in 1994, but the first aircraft were
not delivered until 1998. It is an upgraded version with Western
avionics, including the Flight Management Computer, GPS, EGPWS,
TCAS, and other modern systems. The airplane could carry up to 157
passengers. The cabin featured an automatic oxygen system and
larger overhead bins. Only three were produced, as payment of debts
owed by Russia to Slovakia. Three aircraft were delivered in 1998
to Slovak Airlines, and sold back to Russia in 2003.
Tu-155
A Tu-154 converted into a testbed for alternative fuels; it first
flew in 1988 and was used until the fall of the Soviet Union, after
which it was put in storage.
Tu-164
Initial designation of the Tu-154M.
Tu-174
Proposed stretched version of Tu-154.
Tu-194
Proposed shortened version of Tu-154.
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